The electrolyte limits how many times the battery can be charged and discharged, he says, along with how quickly the battery can be recharged and how much energy it can store.The new generation of batteries will be lithium-ion but will use different electrolytes. For example, they may have a solid-state electrolyte instead of liquid.The requirements placed on an electrolyte are high. It must conduct electricity, withstand high voltages, and remain electrochemically and thermally stable over a long period of time. This is why developing a solid-state alternative is so challenging.Last year, researchers at the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology developed a solid-state electrolyte that competes with the usual liquid electrolytes in terms of efficiency. It has a conductivity comparable to a liquid electrolyte at room temperature, and is stable at temperatures of up to 150 degrees Celsius. In contrast, liquid electrolytes pose a safety risk at such high temperatures.

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In 2016, researchers at Toyota published a paper looking into a solid-state lithium ion battery that can fully charge in just seven minutes.Lithium sulphur batteries, which are based on a completely different chemistry, are another promising future battery. Theoretically, they can store a large charge and use sulphur, which is abundant.Battery costs have fallen significantly in recent years as demand has increased and more uses have emerged, such as in electric vehicles and grid storage. But to make electric vehicles affordable and practical for driving long distances, batteries need to become even cheaper to produce, and their life cycle extended.In 2014, Johnson Matthey, a British company specialising in sustainable technologies, acquired a battery research facility in Changzhou, southern China, to improve battery efficiency in cars. It says the lifespan of batteries for used in autonomous cars will need to match that of the vehicle, possibly up to 10 to 15 years. This means customers will not be put-off from buying an electric car because of the limited lifetime of the battery. At the moment, most manufacturers offer guarantees that batteries will last around eight years, or 100,000 miles.

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Alongside electric cars, grid storage is another area where large-scale batteries will play an increasingly important role. The amount of renewable power from solar and wind at any given time depends on the weather, which makes it intermittent. Batteries can help stabilise grids by storing energy efficiently.“Sodium-ion batteries could be an inexpensive alternative to lithium-ion in the grid storage market,” says Ms Cheng. Sodium-ion batteries work in a similar way to lithium-ion but use sodium instead, which is more readily available.Dr Emma Kendrick, a materials chemist at the University of Warwick, is looking into the sodium-ion battery. “This is a low-cost alternative to lithium-ion batteries,” she says. “It is still in its infancy but there are opportunities to perform research into the manufacturability and durability of the technology.”Flow batteries are another alternative.